Race Colors Judgement Essay Example for Free

Race Colors Judgement Essay The criminal justice system in the United States is one of the many places that I believe stereotypes are formed. For example, African-Americans make up only 13% of the U. S. population but represent 46% of the inmate population who have received sentences of more than one year (Hart, 2006, p. 1). Another example of a racial disparity can be seen the percentage of African-Americans who are drug users (14%) and those sentenced for drug offenses (53%) (Sentencing Project, 2009 p. 3). More African-American men are in prison or jail, on probation or parole then were enslaved in 1850, before the Civil War began,† (Alexander, 2010). However, this is not just a problem within the African-American community. More than 60% of the people in prison are now racial and ethnic minorities and three-fourths of all persons in prison for drug offenses are people of color (www. sentencingproject. org). The Bureau of Justice Statistics shows, that the likelihood for an African-American or Hispanic to be imprisoned is, 18. % for African-Americans and 10% for Hispanics, while the likelihood for Whites is 3. 4% (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2005). Brennan and Spohn (2009) showed in their study, â€Å"The Joint Effects of Offender Race/Ethnicity and Sex on Sentence Length Decisions in Federal Courts†, that African-American males received a significantly longer sentence (93 months) than White males (86. 2 months) (Brennan Spohn, 2009). These are just some of the numbers, which cannot be ignored. An important question to ask; why are these racial disparities happening? In the study â€Å"White juror bias: An investigation of racial prejudice against Black defendants in the American courtroom†, Sommers Ellsworth (2001) have a quote, which, I think, sums up the reasoning for studying race and its effect on juries, it came from one of my favorite movies: â€Å"In our courts, when it is a white man’s word against a black man’s, the white man always wins. They’re ugly, but those are the facts of life†¦The one place where man ought to get a square deal is a courtroom, be he any color of the rainbow, but people have a way of carrying their resentments right into the jury box† (From To Kill a Mockingbird, Lee, 1960, p. 20). The thinking by many social psychologists is â€Å"Racism still exists in our society today but is no longer endorsed by explicit racist beliefs or overt acts of prejudice† (Sommers Ellsworth, 2003). Instead it’s a â€Å"Subtle, implicit, or aversive form of racism† (Sommers Ellsworth, 2003). Whites in our society are taught to embrace egalitarianism (equality) and make a conscious effort to behave non-prejudice, or have non-bias beliefs. However, that does not mean that they still don’t harbor prejudicial attitudes. In a trial setting aversive racism and race salience, or racially charged vs. racially neutral, go hand and hand. Studies have concluded, a trial that is racially charged reminds jurors of their egalitarianism, but in a trial not racially charged a jurors’ motivation to avoid being prejudice is not triggered; instead they demonstrate their racial bias (Sommers Ellsworth, 2001). It is the run of the mill trials where juror biases are displayed. White jurors need to be â€Å"reminded† that they should not have a bias. By â€Å"reminding† them, by a racially motivated incident, jury voir dire, jury instructions before deliberation, and others, White jurors are less likely to demonstrate racial bias towards an African-American defendant. Jury composition or heterogeneity vs. homogeneity groups, is theorized to be a huge factor in overall group decision-making skills. This is especially important in the jury decision-making process and verdicts because minorities are underrepresented on a jury. Sommers’s study â€Å"Racial Diversity and Group Decision Making† (2006) concluded, a jury, which has heterogeneity, rather than homogeneity considers a wider range of perspectives and information (Sommers, 2006). It was the diversity of the group influence on the White juror more than the performance of the African-American juror in the group (Sommers, 2006). This is not to say that the African-American juror did not perform well. Since many juries are not racially diverse, Whites on a jury may forget their egalitarian values, may not consider a wider range of perspectives and information, and will spend less time on their decisions. In-group bias is when people show a strong preference for fellow in-group members and tend to malign out-group members (Sommers Ellsworth, 2000). Thomas Pettigrew, current Research Professor of Social Psychology at the University of California, in his 1979 study demonstrated that negative behaviors of in-group members were attributed to situational forces but negative behaviors of out-group members were attributed to inherent dispositions, which is the opposite from positive behavior attribution (Sommers Ellsworth, 2000). This is a particularly important theory because juries for criminal trials are taking in facts pertaining to the negative behavior of a defendant who is either from their in-group or out-group. Systematic information processing is conceptualized as â€Å"Comprehensive analytic orientation to inform processing in which perceivers access and scrutinize a great deal of information for its relevance to their judgment task† (Tamborini et al. , 2007) Heuristic processing is conceptualized as â€Å"A more limited mode of information processing that requires less cognitive effort and fewer cognitive resources than systematic processing† (Tamborini et al. , 2007) Simple stated, heuristic information processing are shortcuts using previous knowledge and stereotypes, which influences peoples’ judgments. During a trial, jurors take in enormous amounts of information and when deliberating they tend to fill in the missing information with past experiences or stereotypes about certain crimes and criminals. This is not their intention, however it is how people cognitively process information-we put information into or take it out of certain categories. There are three main research methods used to study race and its effects on juries (Sommers Ellsworth, 2003). Archival analysis of actual cases is ideal but there are a lot of confounding variables, which are hard to measure and control statistically (Sommers Ellsworth, 2003). Another method used is post-trial juror interviews. This method is useful because you are asking direct questions of the jurors, who were part of the real trials. However, it is time consuming, has a small sample size, and relies on self-reporting by jurors (which in unreliable) (Sommers Ellsworth, 2003). The third method is mock juror experiments, which relies on the experimental method of social psychology and allows the experimenters to control the confounding variables (Sommers Ellsworth, 2003). There are some downfalls to using mock juror experiments as well, such as using college students as participants, written trial summaries, instead of witnessing a real trial, and the decision made by mock jurors have no real consequences (Sommers Ellsworth, 2003). According to Sommers and Ellsworth (2003) it is best to use multiple methods. For example compare archival data to mock jury data. As I stated earlier, aversive racism and race salience (racially charged vs. racially neutral) in trials go hand and hand. Sommers and Ellsworth (both social psychologists) first studied race salience in their study, â€Å"Race in he Courtroom: Perceptions of Guilt and Dispositional Attributions† (2000). Since the theory of aversive racism (modern or subtle) states, Whites are more motivated to â€Å"appear† non-prejudice when racial issues are salient or prominent. They found that when a trial involves race salience the race of the defendant did not influence the White jurors (Sommers Ellsworth, 2000). However, when a trail did not have race salience, the African-American defendants were found to be more guilty, aggressive, and violent by the White juror then the White defendant. This could have a profound effect, since Whites are not caught up in the day to day of racial issues, they may not take notice to the most subliminal racial issues in a trial. It may cause them to revert back to the more overt form of racism without even consciously knowing they are being racist or displaying their biases. A more recent study, â€Å"Diversity and Fairness in the Jury System†, conducted for the Ministry of Justice Research Series, by Thomas and Blamer (2007) concluded when a trial is racially charged (race salience), conviction rates for African-American defendants were lower. However, the conviction rate between White jurors and African-American jurors for African-American defendants were no different (Thomas Balmer, 2007) (44% and 43%). In trials that were racially neutral, White jurors had low conviction rates for African-American defendants, while African-American jurors had high conviction rates for White defendants and low conviction rates for African-American defendants (Thomas Balmer, 2007). This was a very interesting finding because in the Sommers and Ellsworth studies (2000, 2001) African-American jurors showed leniency both in race salience and non-race salience trials. Thomas and Balmer (2007) point out that in the Sommers and Ellsworth study that jurors did not decide cases as part of a jury with any deliberations (Thomas Balmer, 2007). The results in the Thomas and Blamer study showed that individual jurors had difference conviction rates, but as a jury there was no difference between race salience and non-race salience trails (Thomas Blamer, 2007). None of the juries (there were 8 in all) in the Thomas and Blamer (2007) study convinced the White defendant, The juries in England and Wales where this study took place have the same makeup as juries in the United States, majority White (Thomas Balmer, 2007). That makes a nice segway into my next theory of jury composition because it appears that they dynamic of a racially mixed jury helped ensure individual biases were not allowed to dictate verdicts (Thomas Balmer, 2007). Justice Thurgood Marshall said, â€Å"Diverse juries enjoy wider ranging discussions because White and Black jurors bring different experiences and perspectives to the jury room† (Sommers, 2006). Not only do African-American jurors bring different experiences but also, as we saw in the Thomas and Balmer (2007) study a racially mixed jury might help to ensure individual biases are not allowed to dictate verdicts. Again, referring to a study by Sommers (the leading researcher in this field) in which he specifically studies â€Å"The multiple effects of racial composition on jury deliberations† (Sommers, 2006). Having African-Americans (or minorities in general) on a jury can bring two different types of diversity-deep-level diversity and surface-level diversity (Sommers, 2007). Both can affect information exchange in different ways. Deep-level diversity brings the expertise, attitudes, and values of the individual members to the deliberation room (Sommers, 2007). Surface-level diversity brings members’ demographics and social category membership into the deliberation room (Sommers, 2007). Sommers’ (2006) found diverse groups spent more time deliberating, made fewer factual errors, and if there was an error it was more likely to be corrected, more open-mindness, and less resistance to discussions of controversial race topics (Sommers, 2006). The homogenous jury was the opposite (Sommers, 2006). Those results showed the affect deep-level diversity could bring to a jury. However, another aspect, which will bring me back to the theory of aversive racism and race salience, is the affect having diversity has on a White juror. By having a racially diverse jury, the White jurors have the issue of race and egalitarian values in the forefront of their minds. The White jurors are avoiding seeming bias. Sommers et al. , (2008) conducted a study to see if there are â€Å"Cognitive effects of racial diversity in a group. † The study found that Whites in a diverse group process information more thoroughly. They had no interaction with a diverse group member, it was simply being aware of a diverse group composition, which impacted the cognition of White members. It even improved reading comprehension of race-relevant passages, especially when Whites expected to have race-relevant conversation. This is important in a legal context as well. If a White juror’s cognitive ability, and information processing is improved they will use systematic processing which is â€Å"A comprehensive, analytic orientation to information processing in which perceivers access and scrutinize a great deal of information for its relevance to their judgment task†, instead of heuristics processing or shortcuts in their decision making (Tamborini et al. 2007). The Supreme Court attempted to make juries more racially diverse â€Å"Batson prohibition against race-based peremptories was based on two assumptions: (1) a prospective juror’s race can bias a jury selection judgments; (2) requiring attorneys to justify suspicious peremptories enables judges to determine whether a challenge is, indeed, race-neutral† (Batson v. Kentucky, 476 U. S. 79 (1986). To summarize the findings, White jurors tend to show their bias towards African-American defendants when the trial is not racially charged because they are not motivated to conceal their bias (aversive racism and egalitarian views). In homogenous juries Whites are more like to be bias, spend less time on their decisions, make more errors, consider fewer perspectives, are not motivated to conceal their bias. Also, when there is information overload jurors use heuristics (shortcuts) to process information, rather than a systematic review of the information. Tis effect, of using shortcuts, produces bias judgment for both African-American jurors and White jurors. All the aforementioned could be cause for the bias decision making of jurors and juries. However, there are positives that can be found throughout these studies. For instance, racially diverse juries, and race salience trials can help alleviate the biases by jurors and juries. It also proves that not all White juries are affected by the race of a defendant (in certain situations). Race and its effect on jury decisions is a topic that will be studied for years to come because of the complex nature of a jury and modern racism. Although studies have shown bias decision-making by White jurors there is still not enough statistics to make a causal connection. Research has also shown ways in which a jury’s bias can be minimized. The jury is one of the backbones of the court system, because of this, it is imperative that we continue to study juror bias and how to minimize their bias through different trial techniques and policies and procedures.

Is Print Media Dead? Essay -- essays research papers

Print media and journalism in general has a bright future in the upcoming decade. I do believe that it is shifting, and we may have to redefine journalism. Journalism has always defined newspapers, magazines, and the printed word. Broadcast journalists also earn that distinction but to a lesser degree because of the medium they work in. I do think that the printed works of journalists are here to stay for a long time. The area that I see changing is where the words are going to be printed. Words are they going to be on paper or on electronic screens? I have always liked newspapers. They can be taken anywhere by anyone. They can also be folded into paper airplanes and thrown around classrooms. The final resting-place of many newspapers is the bathroom. I know that in my house that is where the front page and sports section is. This particular journalism class likes newspapers. I walk in and see many of my classmates reading one everyday. The technology for the extinction of newspapers has been around for fifty years. Fifty years has passed and still newspapers and magazines hold a dominant place in the culture of every race on earth. What makes them so attractive? The information they contain is the main attraction. A poor family in Italy can find out how their favorite soccer team did against the English. A starving Ethiopian can find out when the next shipment of humanitarian aid is coming to his village. We Americans can find out if McDonalds is coming out with a new combo...

Supply Chain Managemetn – Scm vs. Crm and Erp

Supply Chain Management (SCM) and Customer Relationship Management (CRM) vs. Enterprise Resource System (ERP) a Comparative Paper. Enterprise Resource Planning System (ERP), also referred to as the traditional management system, was generated from the MRP or the Material Requirement Systems. Companies have utilized this system for well over 25 years. In its primary set up, the MRP stores data related to inventory control and production planning. The system is widespread with the use of one its system with the largest market share, the SAP system is the primary base system for over 60 percent of multinational companies.Many companies have been influenced by ERP over the years, including both small and medium size businesses; it is the core of their information processing landscape. Benefits of the ERP Systems: * Improvement to the quality and efficiency of a firm * Improvements to Customer Service and Manufacturing outputs. * Upper Level Management can benefit with critical decision m aking information * Firms become more alert after incorporating the ERP systems. Supply Chain Management Systems (SCM) captures the relationship between a firm and its database of suppliers.The processes allows for records of production, sales of goods and services, delivery of goods. With this process, a firm can improve on lead times, production values and on-time deliveries of goods and services. Strategies are put in place to allow companies to document inventory control data, along with financial resources require to produce quality goods and provide services in an efficient manner. As a collaborative process, SCM depicts activities where sales of products or goods and services are closely linked with consumers.The solution derived from the process allows customers and vendors to connect inventories, order distribution and order production. The processes are distributed between partners who collaborate on different aspect of supply chain management including logistics, order fu lfillment. Supply Chain management’s core premise ensures that its distribution channels are reflected cohesively amongst its members. Succinct inventory needs and cost control are among the substantial benefits of SCM.Results are improved profit margins and efficient environmentally friendly transportation. Benefits of SCM System: * Improvement in Firm / Vendor relationships resulting in opportunities to cut cost through a volume discount. * Improved Collaboration by developing reports to effectively progress goods and services from supplier to distributor. * Improvement in cycle times which allows raw materials to be made available to your firm needs them in order to keep the production flow moving. Improvement in Conflict resolution; opportunity to better cope with issues on all sides of the production spectrum allows you to be proactive in your responses to problems as oppose to being blindsided by them. Customer Relationship Management (CRM), in its core element, sync up customers and vendors which ensures that goods and services are ultimately delivered to customers efficiently and in a timely manner. This process can only be embarked upon after the sales group closes if you will the sale; said process integrates sales, customer support, and supply chain management and customer relationship in order to enlarge the operation.The CRM system incorporates data collections in specific databases; in most CRM program, the primary role of each functional session is first and foremost customer driven with sales, marketing and customer service emphasize. The goal is to target the customers with the best attributes to build long term efficient relationships. The key element in the CRM system is providing a function that helps business streamline their processes as it relates to taking care of their customer. Benefits of CRM System: * Allows the collection of data tht can be shared within the company. Improvement in Customer Service. * Improvement in your com pany’s marketing strategies. Comparative Analysis Supply Chain integration though fundamental, can be difficult to implement. The ultimate goal is to effectively change the nature of the relationships between vendors and buyers from a traditional perspective to a non-traditional one. Comparatively, when implementing SCM, firms must take in to consideration the impact of the human side of the equation whereas, CRM though relationship based, affects all aspect of supply chain and directly influence performance.More than likely, the base setup such as the information and technology systems needed to implement the supply chain system will be readily available and can be executed almost immediately. Even with all this in place, there are instances where a number of supply chain and customer relationships initiatives fail due to lack of communication or clear and concise expectations from all parties involved. The customer relationship aspect is usually assumed by managers of a fir m, and thus tries to merge the SCM and CRM, the result of said merger often end up being one the most difficult part of the integration.Maintaining a decent relationship between the customer and vendors/supplier makes for a succinct SCM and CRM; integrating the two is critical to developing trust and essential to the success of the firm. Trust building is essential in developing a relationship between the SCM and CRM; however, it’s an ongoing process that must be managed on a continual basis otherwise it can be loss leaving the firm vulnerable. Like supply chain management, customer relationship management is a critical contributor to a firms survival, incorporating three integral components, organizational, strategic and cultural factors in order to succeed.However, unlike SCM, Customer relationships management further breaks down these components to further impact its implementation. On the organizational level, the firm takes a look at integration, commitment and system re adiness and moreover, on the strategic issues, the firm considers vision planning and customer based cultured. Lastly, the 3rd component added to the mix for a successful implementation is the cultural foundation which consists of networking and human interaction. All of these components and sub-parts combine with comprehensive customer knowledge, contributes to a successful CRM implementation.This method â€Å"emphasizes the importance of continuously identifying and satisfying customers’ ever-changing needs by the facilitation of appropriate organizational structure and management approaches† (Stefanou et al. 2003). By comparison in their approach, the CRM unlike the SCM, establishes long-term relationships, combine with customer knowledge and in most cases a customer-based-focus along with a determined strategy. By impressive results, the long-term relation aspect of the CRM is fundamental and essential for the implementation. This notion is closely related to an aw areness of the positive correlation between customer retention and a company’s profitability† (Reichheld et al. , 2000). By the same token both SCM and CRM lays claim to customer information playing a significant role in their implementation and ultimately their success. In order to provide superb customer service, there is a certain amount of research that goes into becoming familiar with the target market and by extension the customer base within those markets.According to Winer, 2001, constructing a comprehensive customer information profile or database is the foundation for any CRM implementations. This method is also essential in the foundation of a SCM implementation. While the CRM primary approach is customer-centered and looks to building long-term interaction with customers, the SCM tends to center its approach on process management and project initiatives in order to satisfy their customer needs. The ISO 9000 is a tool implemented to evaluate processes of a su pplier through grading and registering.This tool helps suppliers and vendors keep track of their systematic process and enable them to stay in line with standard practices. Alternative Approaches to SCM and CRM: In trying to perfect standard processes, there are alternative tools to the SCM and CRM system, which in turn contributes to improving products in order to meet customer needs. These tools or approaches can generally be used in conjunction with SCM and CRM or individually. Quality Function Deployment (QFD) also known as ‘house of quality’ allows engineers and marketers to communicate effectively (Hauser and Clausing 1988).Another alternative approach is the Computer-aided design (CAD), which aids in the design process. (Meredith 1987). Design of experiment (DOE) coordinates off-line functions which allow inputs to product and processes to be configured effectively for optimum customer satisfaction (Foster 2010). Though there are more design approaches, one prima ry one worth mentioning is the Designs for manufacture (DFM). This approach is formulated to assist in the improvement of manufacture for products (AIAG 2008).The aforementioned approaches are not intended to be all-inclusive; the intention is to highlight a collection of tools use to improve quality and provide insights to the differences between SCM and CRM and the traditional operational system. Diverse Approaches Processing information can vary by cultural and social standings. These attributes allows managers to solve problems and process information differently. In some early research statistics shows that supply chain has significant correlation to marketing and logistics.From a research perspective, the supply chain field has essentially been a proponent for diverse management derivatives. Though research shows that there’s very little differences in traditional and supply chain practices; however, the gap in the differences in process between the SCM and CRM has clos e in the last few years. Executive Summary The relationship between software systems that impact value chain management varied in all aspects of its functions; traditionally, the Enterprise Resource planning systems (ERP) system is engineered to streamline business processes and connects their information and work flow.Similarly, the Supply Chain Management Systems incorporates activities between a firm and it’s vendors and by so doing, it too connects their information and work flow. The Customer Relationship Management System focuses on the customer interaction with emphasis on sales, customer service, and marketing, The management of the supply chain systems can be challenging in every aspect; it requires constant supervision of suppliers back to the point-of-origin and all goods/services out to the point-of-consumption might prove to be even more challenging.The key understanding is that managing these relationships could lead to power in the supply chain industry includi ng the supplier network which could provide opportunities to improve profits significantly. Ultimately, supply chain management is about establishing and managing relationships, in managing these relationships, a link is formed thereby establishing the customer relationship management process and the end result is a structure relationship between customers and suppliers. Studies show that â€Å"the structure of activities within and between companies is a critical cornerstone of creating unique and superior supply chain performance.The study allows for business processes if linked, increase in potential profitability while managing individual functions could lead to an effective management system. Study also shows that optimizing the product flow can be realized if a direct approach to business is implemented. Though the focus of this paper is the relationship between the supply chain management system and the customer relationship management system, the Global Supply Chain Forum h as also recognized other management processes; accordingly they are: * Customer Service Management * Order Fulfillment * Supplier Relationship Management Return Management * Demand Management * Manufacturing Flow Management These highly capable processes, have all been established and integrated into the supply chain management process, they all also have strategic and operational sub-processes. In order to examine how the process is implemented, the strategic sub-process provides the structure while the operational sub-process allows you to implement with detailed step-by-step instructions; and furthermore, the strategic process is essential in integrating all departments in the supply chain process providing day-to-day functions operationally.Much like the supply chain management system, the customer relationship system provides structure; however, the focus is primarily on the relationships between the customers and the firm. This system provides key components on developing and maintain the relationships with could lead to long-term success. With most supply chain organization, decision on which customer base to target base on market analysis, these customers eventually becomes key target points for the firm’s business mission. Similarly, most of these decisions are made and put in place by a leadership team of the firm.The successful integration of the management systems across key components of the supply chain process will ultimately leads to a successful firm. Both the supply chain management and customer relationship management systems are successful when valuable resources are used proficiently. Research shows that when activities within a firm are implemented throughout the eight supply chain management process using cross-functional teams, the result is cross-functional relationships with customers and supplier. References Financial Decision Making for Managers: Volume 1, 2011 * Supply Chain Management Vs. Customer Relationship Management â €“ htt://www. smallbusiness. chron. com/supply-chain-management-vs-customer-relationship-management. chron. com * Managing relationships in the Supply Chain http://scm. ncsu. edu/scm-articles/article/managing-relationships-in-the-supply-chain * Studying the Customer Relationship Management: A Case Study at Persian Technology Firm. An Executive Summary of Supply Chain Management: Processes, Partnerships, Performance * Douglas M. Lambert

Anti Gun Control - 752 Words

Mia Parra Raybuck English 11 P.3 11 September 2013 Anti Gun Control Due to recent mass shootings in the U.S. many Americans fear for their safety. Many Americans fear to go out to movie theaters, restaurants, and even their children s schools. In the article Will Sikh temple shooting spark U.S. conversation on gun control, Peter Greier claims Americans are deeply split about the prospect of new gun laws, and tragic events such as recent mass killings do not change voter opinions. Gun control laws should be any more strict because it would be violating the Second Amendment and the right to bare arms to protect yourself against criminals. To begin with, taking away a citizens right to bare arms is a violation of†¦show more content†¦Being forced by law to leave her fire arm locked away in her car, she didn t know this particular time would be the best situation to use it. Her lunch would be interrupted by a criminal with a gun. She watched as he shot each victim one by one. Including her own parents. Had she possessed her gun in this instance these tragic deaths may not have occurred. However, not all guns should be aloud and open to the public. In most cases assault weapons are used in mass shootings. In California it is illegal to own any gun with with an AK/AK15. Assault weapons are unnecessary to defend yourself. Sometimes all it takes to defend yourself is just revealing your fire arm. For example Appalachian School was being targeted by a shooter when a few brave students showed enough courage to run out to their cars and grab their fire arms. These students were lucky to prevent any deaths from happening. Furthermore, more gun laws would not stop a criminal from possessing a gun. Criminals already don t obey the law. Background checks are an absolute must. Background checks should prevent a gun from getting in the wrong hands of the wrong person. Many criminals clan they like the gun control laws because it leaves the victim helpless and without a gun. If every home had a gun, less criminals feel power over victims by possessing a gun. By everyone having a gun, it equalizes the un equal. In other words, theseShow MoreRelatedAnti Gun Control1000 Words   |  4 PagesAnti Gun Control Should the mere fact that criminals committing crimes with the use of guns infringe the national right of the innocent to possess guns. This is a question that arouses everywhere and no matter which way it is viewed the controversy will always go on. A gun is a mere tool that can be used for good or evil. 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